In the RGB color model #cd5c5c is comprised of 80.39% red, 36.08% green and 36.08% blue. In the HSL color space #cd5c5c has a hue of 0° (degrees), 53% saturation and 58% lightness. Color spaces of cd5c5c Indian Red. Cd5c5c color RGB value is (205,92,92).
3Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati, IndiaThe Indian red scorpion (Mesobuthus tamulus) is one of the world’s deadliest scorpions, with stings representing a life-threatening medical emergency. 2Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States 1Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India Bhabana Das 1, Anthony J. However, an insider recently said that had nothing to do with his death. On Tuesday, someone on Instagram claimed Indian Red Boy was shot because of girl drama and because he switched gangs, according to Hip Hop DX.CALIFORNIA rapper Indian Red Boy was filmed smiling and laughing on Instagram Live just seconds before he was fatally shot last week.
Indian red scorpion stings induce the release of catecholamine, which leads to pathophysiological abnormalities in the victim. Other minor toxins comprise 15.6% of the total venom proteome. The significant pharmacological activity is predominantly caused by the low molecular mass non-enzymatic Na + and K + ion channel toxins. The Indian red scorpion venom proteome comprises 110 proteins belonging to 13 venom protein families. In India, Indian red scorpions are broadly distributed in western Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka however, fatal envenomations have been recorded primarily in the Konkan region of Maharashtra.
The following review summarizes the progress made towards understanding the venom proteome of the Indian red scorpion and addresses the current understanding of the pathophysiology associated with its sting.A Brief Overview of Venomous Scorpions With Particular Reference to Indian Red ScorpionAnimal venoms are complex secretions consisting mainly of bioactive proteins and peptides ( Fry et al., 2009 Casewell et al., 2013) that primarily serve as a chemical means of protection and subduing prey. The proteomic analysis also suggests that Indian red scorpion venom is a rich source of pharmacologically active molecules that may be envisaged as drug prototypes. However, scorpion-specific antivenoms have exhibited poor immunorecognition and neutralization of the low molecular mass toxins. Immediate administration of antivenom is the preferred treatment for Indian red scorpion stings.
Lastly, we address some of the different treatment regimens utilized by clinicians to treat scorpion stings. This venom phenotype is also seen in other medically important scorpion species, such as the Iranian scorpion ( Hemiscorpius lepturus) of the Hemiscorpiidae family ( Prendini, 2000), and Pandinus imperator (Scorpionidae family), which is endemic to West Africa.Given the medical threat of the Indian red scorpionand the recent characterization of its venom proteome ( Das et al., 2020), the following review aims to highlight the current understanding of the venom proteome composition, the epidemiology of Indian red scorpion sting, and correlate venom phenotype to the pathophysiological symptoms observed following envenomation. The potent toxicity of Indian red scorpion venom is attributed to the abundance of potassium channel toxins targeting the central nervous and cardiovascular systems (discussed below).
A case study involving 141 children admitted to Government Raja Mirasdhar Hospital (Thanjavur, southern India) with a real Indian red scorpion sting, demonstrated that childrenbetween 1–3 and 7–12 years of age exhibited the following: most adverse effects to envenomation. They are rarely found outside Eastern Nepal ( Bhadani et al., 2006), Eastern Pakistan ( Kovařík, 2007), or Sri Lanka ( Kularatne et al., 2015).In India, morbidity and mortality due to scorpion stings frequently occur in western Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. These nocturnal predators are endemic to the Indian sub-continent. The present-day Indian red scorpion ranges in size from 2 to 3.5 inches (5–9 cm) in length ( Kovařík, 2007), has red pedipalps (claws), a tail, legs, and body covered in khaki-colored cuticles ( Figure 1). Evidence suggests that scorpions have existed on earth for over 430 million years and first appeared as an aquatic organism during the Silurian period ( Dunlop and Selden, 2013). The different search words were “Indian red scorpion venom,” “Toxins and Indian red scorpion venom,” “epidemiology of Indian red scorpion sting,” “Proteomic analysis and Indian red scorpion venom,” “Pathophysiology of Indian red scorpion sting,” “ Mesobuthus tamulus,” and “Treatment of scorpion sting.” Geographical Distribution, Epidemiology, and Clinical Symptoms of StingThe evolutionary history of scorpions is represented by a continuous fossil record that dates back to the Telychian Stage (Silurian, Llandovery) ( Dunlop, 2010 Dunlop and Selden, 2013).
Upon admission to the hospital, all patients had evidence of either local or systemic manifestations envenoming ( Kularatne et al., 2015 Ratnayake et al., 2016). While the mean age was 30 years ( Kularatne et al., 2015), 5 (22%) cases were children below 12. Twenty-three Indian red scorpion stings have been documented in three localities of Jaffna, Sri Lanka, consisting of 13 (57%) males and 10 (43%) females. Patients were further divided into three broad groups based on the clinical symptoms- i) 111 (38%) patients exhibited hypertension within 1–10 h (mean 3.5 h), ii) 87 (30%) patients with tachycardia reported within 1–24 h (mean 6.7 h), and iii) 72 (24.5%) patients with pulmonary oedema reported within 6–24 h (mean 8 h) post scorpion sting ( Bawaskar and Bawaskar, 1996 Bawaskar and Bawaskar, 1998).A 14 year old healthy male from the Babaganj region of Northern India developed cardiac and gastrointestinal complications following an Indian red scorpion sting on the right big toe ( Agrawal et al., 2015). Records from a tertiary care and teaching hospital in southern India showed that 50 patients experiencing Indian red scorpion sting demonstrated dyspnoea ( n = 13, 26%), chest pain ( n = 9, 18%), vomiting ( n = 6, 12%), sweating ( n = 5, 10%), nausea ( n = 3, 6%), priapism ( n = 7, 14%) and piloerection ( n = 6, 12%) ( Madhavan, 2015).An epidemiological study conducted in Mahad (200 km south of Mumbai, Western India) from 1984 to 1995 also showed that children <16 years tend to respond more poorly to Indian red scorpion sting ( Bawaskar and Bawaskar, 1998) out of the 293 patients, six deaths were reported before hospital arrival. One patient older than 6 years exhibited pulmonary edema, a fatal and life-threatening sting effect ( Yuvaraja et al., 2019).
It has also been suggested that genetic structure correlates to climatic differences in precipitation, specifically high, moderate, and low rainfall areas ( Suranse et al., 2017), associated with differences in venom phenotype. Several populations of Indian red scorpions collected from eight locations in Maharashtra (Bhate plateau, Sangameshwar, Jejuri, Shindavane, Pashan, Alandi, Kalyan, and Jalna) exhibited moderate genetic variation, with regression analysis suggesting that the genetic distance of subspecies increases by 0.006% (95%CI: 0.003–0.010%) per Kilometre of geographical separation ( Suranse et al., 2017). Diversity of Indian Red Scorpion VenomGeographical variation in sting severity has been reported in India ( Reddy, 2013 Suranse et al., 2019) ( Figure 2) and is a likely consequence of variation in population genetic structure, which drives phenotypic differences in venom composition ( Newton et al., 2007). The patients exhibited bradycardia, drowsiness, cutaneous manifestations, hypotension, and hypertension ( Rajashekhar and Mudgal, 2017).
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